The total number of publications obtained from the searches is represented by n = universe. 2016), copper (Huang et al. Batteries are reduced by preheating, pyrolysis and smelting, successively (Schakman et al., 2014; Jing et al., 2018). For example, some research is focused on recovering and reusing solar-grade silicon that is lost from cutting the top and bottom of the silicon ingot, (Bronsveld et al.
Further research is required to address the knowledge gap on the human health and social and environmental justice outcomes of PV recycling operations. 2020), Optimizing siting of EOL infrastructure through geospatial analysis tools: EOL PV waste is going to be increasingly sourced from geographically disperse installation locations. For reference, the above factors have been studied in agent-based modeling and systems dynamics models investigating technologies like PV (Walzberg, Carpenter, and Heath 2021), computer hardware (Walzberg et al. The cells were then disassembled, broken and sorted. doi: 10.1016/S0304-386X(98)00046-2, Zhu, J. Despite a significant number of publications (Figure 20 (e) and Figure S30 (E)), we identify persistent methodological challenges in the application of LCAs and TEAs to CE strategies for PV systems. Did you know that with a free Taylor & Francis Online account you can gain access to the following benefits? G. survey, Modelling and understanding battery materials with machine-learning-driven atomistic simulations, Comprehensive recycling of silicon photovoltaic modules incorporating organic solvent delamination Technical, environmental and economic analyses, Ecological recycling of lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles with focus on mechanical processes, Detectable faults on recently installed solar modules in Western Australia, Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory United States Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office, Development of a recyclable PV-module: Trial manufacturing and evaluation, Experimental study on PV module recycling with organic solvent method, Challenges in ecofriendly battery recycling and closed material cycles: A perspective on future lithium battery generations, Prospects for electric vehicle batteries in a circular economy, Recovery of solar grade silicon from kerf loss slurry waste, The transformation of southern Californias residential photovoltaics market through third-party ownership, Ecofriendly recycling of lithium-ion batteries, Circularity of lithium-ion battery materials in electric vehicles, Mylar UVPHET - sustainability without compromise, United States Energy Information Adminsitration, Li-cycle to build battery recycling Hub in the USA, Reuse and repower: How to save money and clean the grid with second-life electric vehicle batteries, Texas community virtual power plant to use solaredges energy bank battery storage, Second-life EV batteries: The newest value pool in energy storage, Recovery of nano-structured silicon from end-of-life photovoltaic wafers with value-added applications in lithium-ion battery, Communication from the commission to the European parliament, the council, the European economic and social committee and the committee of the regions: Closing the loop - An EU action plan for the circular economy, Communication from the commission to the European parliament, the council, the European economic and social committee and the committee of the regions: Critical raw materials resilience: charting a path towards greater security and sustainability, Communication from the commission Ecodesign Working Plan 20162019, Circular economy: Definition, importance and benefits, Circular thinking: The race to trace battery lifecycles, Stationary, second use battery energy storage systems and their applications: A research review, Recycling silicon solar cell waste in cement-based systems, Circular economy and the fate of lithium batteries: Second life and recycling, First Solar recycling recovers up to 90% of materials, Lithium iron phosphate batteries recycling: An assessment of current status, Feasibility assessment of remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling of end of vehicle application lithium-ion batteries, A system dynamics approach to product design and business model strategies for the circular economy, Recent improvements in industrial PV module recycling, Sixteenth European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Recycling of CdTe photovoltaic modules recovery of cadmium and tellurium, Improved hydrometallurgical extraction of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries via a closed-loop process, Lithium-ion battery recycling processes: Research towards a sustainable course, Profitable recycling of low-cobalt lithium-ion batteries will depend on new process developments, Reuse, recycle, and regeneration of lifePO4 cathode from spent lithium-ion batteries for rechargeable lithium- and sodium-ion batteries, Lithium carbonate recovery from cathode scrap of spent lithium-ion battery: A closed-loop process. Silicon anodes for lithium-ion batteries produced from recovered kerf powders, Do we need a new sustainability assessment method for the circular economy? 2019; Rastegarpanah et al. A blank cell in a row indicates the operation is not used by that recycler. 2020). 2019; Velzquez et al. Yes. Manufacturer: Use of the product again by a second customer for the same functionality or purpose. Novel approach to recover cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion battery using oxalic acid. 2015), determining state of health (Basia et al. Explanations of Exclusive, Multiple, and Not reported can be found in Figure 11. 2019), Due= Duesenfeld (Duesenfeld 2021; Hanisch 2019; Harper et al. 2020). Co, Ni, Cu and Fe are reduced and recovered in a residue called matte (Chen et al. While many definitions of the CE exist 114 according to (Kirchherr, Reike, and Hekkert 2017) the World Economic Forum (WEF 2014) defined CE as follows.. A circular economy is an industrial system that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design. (See Figure 11 for explanation of Exclusive and Multiple. Figure 18. That does not mean that these strategies are unimportant to achieving a CE, even in cases when improving circularity was not their primary purpose. For example, in Figure 13 (b), the significantly higher count for Exclusive than Multiple for the end of life sub-classifier indicates that there is a need for publications to analyze how the CE at end of life impacts other life cycle phases. Power Sources 269, 317333. Manufacturer: Decrease in consumption of virgin materials (dematerialization) and avoidance of waste in the manufacturing process. Addressing these questions and others could help to accelerate the repair and reuse of PV systems. 2019), Fre= FRELP/Sasil (Latunussa et al. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.132, Chen, X., Kang, D., and Cao, L. (2019). 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Hazard. With the observed acceleration of research interest, regular updates to the state of the science can mark progress, provide opportunity for course correction, and help fulfill the sustainability promise of a circular economy for photovoltaics and lithium-ion batteries. However, the increasing awareness and growing body of research we have documented indicates that researchers and decision makers in industry and government are actively seeking to better define the scope of the challenges and develop technical and policy solutions. Obtaining robust estimates of employment opportunities through PV recycling is especially important as PV is one of the fastest growing job creating sectors in the United States (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2021). We found that a key knowledge gap in extent research on LIB recycling is the lack of integrated and detailed data on processes and associated costs for all key steps in LIB recycling, limiting the ability to perform derivative TEA, LCA and other analyses. A CE is a proposed approach to mitigate the expected growth in greenhouse gas emissions from increased demand for virgin materials, reduce the environmental and social impacts of material extraction, and address the United Nations Sustainable Development goals, especially Goal 12: Sustainable production and consumption (Geng, Joseph, and Bleischwitz 2019). Third, a repository of specialized jobs and skills in the CE for LIB could help in the design, communication, and implementation of training and skill development programs at the federal, state, and local levels to develop the work force for a CE for LIB (Curtis et al. This is because by extending LIB lifetimes, the embodied energy, carbon emissions, cost, labor, etc. 2011). Many benefits are claimed by connecting the CE to different industries, fields of study, and global challenges.
The EOL phase offers multiple open-loop recycling alternatives. Challenges in the development of advanced Li-ion batteries: a review. Certain chemistries, components, and applications, de-emphasizing alternative designs, materials, etc. Lee and Rhee (2003) reported that the solubility of Li and Co was over 95% at 75C by leaching 1M HNO3 and 1.7% H2O2 (V/V) for 0.5 h (Pinna et al., 2016). Challenges and opportunities exist in recycling energy-intensive solar-grade silicon. Yet, as seen in Figure 13 (e), only research studying technical performance is reported in significant numbers, with all the others (i.e., studies of economics, environmental impacts, policy, and social behavior (Table 3)) summing to just over half of that of technology development alone. 2021) can make the manufacture of modules cheaper but can also negatively impact the economic feasibility of recycling operations by decreasing the revenues earned from resale of recovered silver. Advances in the recovering of spent lithium battery compounds. The balance across classifiers in Figures 1720 for PV are, by and large, similar to those for LIBs (Figures 1113). R&D project evaluation and project portfolio selection by a new interval type-2 fuzzy optimization approach. 2018). The emerging digital pathways for PV CE include: Design for Circularity: The DfC strategy prioritizes circularity prospectively during the manufacturing stage through improved design. Golden: Colorado school of mines. (2002) reported the acid hydrolysis process of cathode materials with nitric acid, and achieved the recovery of 100% Li and 95% Mn. 2021; Schnell et al.
(2016) reported a technology to directly recycle LiFePO4 from soft-pack batteries. The labeling information can be stored on the LIB as a radio frequency identification tag (RFID), material passport, or QR (quick response) code (Bai et al. 2008), using non-adhesive release layers between the ethylene-vinyl acetate and the glass layers (Doi et al. This would include strategies such as ways to decrease the price of renewables, improve their performance, or otherwise increase their deployment. For example, a decrease of silver content in the manufacturing phase (Hamann et al. An integrated process that recovers both the bulk and specialty materials will ensure complete circularity of the PV module and meet potential new regulations requiring such recovery (Heath et al. (n=332). The research cannot soley study LIB cathode chemistry or PV technology outside of the those named in Table 2. We identified two broad approaches to mitigate solar-grade Si losses in cell manufacturing: (1) Reduce the kerf losses by applying sawing methods that are less wasteful (Kumar and Melkote 2018; Schwinde, Berg, and Kunert 2015) or by developing kerf-free wafering processes (Henley et al. 2021a). Primary pathways include the use of machine learning, artificial intelligence, or automation in the design and use of a product or process (e.g., facility optimization, selection of materials, automation of manufacturing), as well as product labelling, real-time monitoring, alternative business models (e.g., product-service systems (PSS)), computer-based tools to design a product to enable circularity, and other technology-specific pathways. In the use phase, ML-based analyses have combined manufacturer's data and results from accelerated aging tests to improve in-use battery state-of-health assessment (refer to section titled Specific applications, chemistries, and components for definition of state of health); identify optimal repair times and change operation to ensure LIB performance and reliability; and allow for reuse or repurposing (Tang et al. While recycling is the most used CE strategy for cathode materials (Figure S15), the results in SI Figure S4 show that there are no integrated recycling technologies to recover the cathode, anode, and the electrolyte. Manufacturer: Recovery of energy from the end-of-life waste of a product (e.g., through incineration). 2021). Cathodes of spent Li-ion batteries: Dissolution with phosphoric acid and recovery of lithium and cobalt from leach liquors. Based on the Ellen MacArthur Foundation conception of the CE, it is important to consider such trade-offs when accounting for restorative impacts of the CE to ecological systems (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2022b). Annual solar repairs and maintenance spend to grow to $9 billion by 2025, Environmental impacts and economic feasibility of end of life photovoltaic panels in Australia: A comprehensive assessment, Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review, The benefits and challenges of using systematic reviews in international development research, The energy payback time of advanced crystalline silicon PV modules in 2020: A prospective study, Machine learning of materials design and state prediction for lithium ion batteries, An environmental justice analysis: Superfund sites and surrounding communities in illinois, A sustainable circular economy: Exploring stakeholder interests in finland, Private and externality costs and benefits of recycling crystalline silicon (c-si) photovoltaic panels, Inequalities, inequities, environmental justice in waste management and health, Promoting a circular economy in the solar photovoltaic industry using life cycle symbiosis, The case for recycling: Overview and challenges in the material supply chain for automotive li-ion batteries, Global implications of the EU battery regulation, How do scholars approach the circular economy? 2018). In the case of no recovery of electrolyte, the spent LIBs were disassembled, crushed and cleaned in the sealed box. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML): AI and ML can be used in all LIB life cycle phases. BYD and Tesla are the two most prominent EV companies, with more than 40% of the world's 1,357,000 registrations in 20191 (Figure 1C). Year of publication reflects a journals planned official publication date, even if made available on-line earlier). 2017 and supplemented by Morseletto 2020; Reike, Vermeulen, and Witjes 2018), Table 2. The EOL phase consists of decommissioning, collection, recycling and (energy) recovery. 2021; Roy et al.
210, 690697.
The commonly used treatment of spent LIBs is similar to the ore smelting (Dunn et al., 2012). As a result, the recovery of anode and electrolyte could have to compete with emerging synthetic pathways of production, thus motivating research to enhance value from recycling by recovering more materials at higher quality and lower cost. 2015). In the early 1990s, Moli and Sony used carbon materials with graphite structure to replace metal lithium anodes, and lithium and transition metal composite oxide such as LiCoO2 served as the cathodes, leading to the commercialization of LIBs (Arora et al., 1998; Song et al., 1999; Lee and Lee, 2000; Pattipati et al., 2014). This study has looked at 44 commercial recyclers and assessed their recycling and reclamation processes. 2015; Bruer 2016; Jiao and Evans 2016, White, White, Thompson, and Swan 2020). Such techniques have begun to be applied to the CE (Walzberg et al. However, impurities in ingot cuts and kerf can degrade cell performance (Davis et al. Blockchain-based platforms can be leveraged to implement smart contracts and link the supply from decentralized producers with the demand of decentralized consumers of PV electricity (Petri et al. With the exception of pyrometallurgical processing for certain recyclers (like Umicore), LIB recycling requires a common first step of mechanical preprocessing (e.g., sieving and crushing). Registered in England & Wales No. doi: 10.1016/S0304-386X(02)00167-6, Lee, S. K., and Lee, S. H. J. N. (2000). (BloombergNEF 2021).
Digital monitoring of performance, operational conditions, and health enables this reduce strategy. 2017, Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2022c). Demand versus supply projections like this have motivated research into how to recover metals from end-of-life technologies to dampen demand for virgin materials. For example, of 51 LCAs and TEAs of CE for LIB, only 22 focus on non-recycling CE strategies. Physical material flows, shown on the right side of the black circles with black lines, are the CE pathways traditionally depicted in systems diagrams; we have added digital platforms and information system (Info Sys) pathways in blue which can enable or enhance the material ones. (B) The global stock of EVs. 2020). Reducing waste: Repair, recondition, remanufacture or recycle? We find a need to account for non-recycling CE strategies in LCAs and TEAs. This assessment helps ensure safe conditions for further treatment, such as preventing the release of toxic hydrogen fluoride and phosphoryl fluoride gas due to short circuiting during disassembly causing thermal runaway (Larsson et al. 