Language Learning, 22, 2941. Functional approaches to language and language teaching: Another look. Washington, DC: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. The rapid growth of English as an international language (EIL) stimulated interesting but often controversial discussion about the status of English in its varieties of what came to be called world Englishes (Kachru, 2005, 2011; Dogancay-Aktuna & Hardman, 2008; Seargeant, 2009; McKay, 2011). Input and second language acquisition theory. First, some studies concluded that FI is closely related to classroom learning that involves analysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercises, drills, and other focused activities (Naiman, Frhlich, Stern, & Todesco, 1978; Hansen & Stansfield, 1981; Stansfield & Hansen, 1983; Hansen, 1984; Jamieson, 1992; Johnson, Prior, & Artuso, 2000). Controlled/Peripheral Giving simple greetings Playing a simple language game Using memorized routines in new situations Completing very limited conversations 3. In T. Parry & C. Stansfield (Eds. But in our everyday conversations we conform to conventionalized discourse styles that vary cross-culturally. In a strong endorsement of the power of interaction in the language curriculum, van Lier (1996) devoted a whole book to the curriculum as interaction (p. 188).
Towards a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. New York: Prentice Hall. In businesses, workers are expected to perform their jobs competently, that is, to exhibit skills that match their expected competence. Robinson, P. Table 5.5 Sociocultural-interactive strategies and tactics S-I Strategy Examples of Tactics Interacting to learn Cooperating with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool information, or model a language activity Overcoming knowledge gaps Asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples, questioning for clarification, using memorized chunks of language to initiate or maintain communication Guessing intelligently Using linguistic clues in lexicon, grammar, or phonology to predict, using discourse markers to comprehend Generating conversation Initiating conversation with known discourse gambits, maintaining conversation with affirmations, verbal and nonverbal attention signals, asking questions Activating sociocultural schemata Asking questions about culture, customs, etc., reading about culture (customs, history, music, art) 128 CHAPTER 5 Individual Differences C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS The three lists above enumerate quite a number of tactics that learners have used to successfully learn foreign languages. Andersen, P. (2007). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. On the surface, its entirely reasonable to make the analogy.
(Eds.). 30 CHAPTER 2 First Language Acquisition Finally, in recent years a further development of connectionist models of language acquisition is seen in a position that hearkens back to the spirit of behavioral approaches. LEARNER LANGUAGE Until the 1960s, L2 learners had been viewed for perhaps centuries as incomplete users of their foreign languagelearners who were at best in the process of slowly and imperfectly approximating (Nemser, 1971) nativelike proficiency. . 3. SLA in children (of varying ages) and adults 2. Cultural awareness and the negotiation of meaning in intercultural communication. Pica, T. (2005). In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds. Hladik, E., & Edwards, H. (1984). C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS What are some examples of operant conditioning techniques that you have experienced in learning or teaching an L2? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 13, 321332. The most important of these is group-specific, the attitude learners have toward the members of the cultural group whose language they are learning. What are the key features children attend to? The germination (pun intended) of my picture was the metaphor once used by Derek Bickerton in a lecture at the University of Hawaii about his contention that human beings are bio-programmed for language (Bickerton, 1981) perhaps not unlike the bio-program of a flower seed, whose genetic makeup predisposes it to deliver, in successive stages, roots, stem, branches, leaves, and flowers. 2. How are we to explain this difference, this apparent lag between comprehension and production? Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Among this surge of interest in psychological well-being was the widely popularized Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1962), commonly referred to as the Myers-Briggs test. Blackledge, A., & Creese, A. Identity in second language teaching and learning. Perhaps like the murmuration of flocks of thousands of starlings performing their amazing shadowlike dances in the sky, each element of ones L2 journey relates to other elements and causes change. What kinds of tips might the teacher offer? Or, in the words of Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow (2000), we would do well to refrain from too much of a misemphasis on poor adult learners and an under-emphasis on adults who master L2s to nativelike levels (p. 9). Oxford, R. (2011a). (1999). Stevick (1982) concluded that LB dominant second language learners are better at producing separate words, gathering the specifics of language, carrying out sequences of operations, and dealing with classification, labeling, and reorganization. Language Learning, 48 (Suppl. ), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. Ehrman, M. (1989). (2003). In Myers-Briggs spinoff tests, for example, we must decide if we tend to stay late, with increasing energy at parties or leave early, with decreased energy, an item designed to measure extroversion vs. introversion. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS What are some examples of overt (sentence level) errors and covert errors in your own production of an L2? One of the goals of your teacher is to help you and your classmates to positively transfer various strategies, mindsets, linguistic tricks, and cross-cultural knowledge to this newest language. The most obvious difference, in the case of adult SLA, is the tremendous cognitive and affective contrast between adults and children. How might you help students to become aware of this style continuum and to put their awareness into action? These and other questions about the acquisition of discourse ability are slowly being answered in the research (Holmes, 1995; Tannen, 1996; Clark, 2009). (2009). This list of factors begins to give you an idea of the many different domains of inquiry that were considered important, in 1976, to constructing a theory of SLA. We also perform acts of listening and reading just as surely as we perform acts of speaking and writing. Share with the rest of the class, and try to come to a consensus.
Donahue and Parsons (1982) examined the use of role-play in ESL classrooms as a means of helping students to overcome cultural fatigue while engaging in oral communication.
. 317). (1976). New York: Routledge. For Piaget, learning is a developmental process that involves change, self-generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experiences (Kaufman, 2004, p. 304). (1987). White, L. (1987). Language Teaching Research, 4, 95121. Zimmerman, B. (1975). Vygotsky and cognitive science: Language and the unification of social and computational mind. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (1990). . Communicating across cultures. 1. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop. Language Learning, 45, 283331. What can we conclude about language acquisition theory based on a competenceperformance model? Complexity The learners task is enormous because language is enormously complex. Investigating tasks in formal language learning. Cathcart, R., & Olsen, J. (Ed.). The score for the symphony may have, lets say, twelve separate parts that are performed simultaneously. That input may be represented as i 1 1, that is, neither too far beyond ones reach nor so close that it poses no challenge (i 1 0). Error Analysis The fact that learners make errorsand that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learnerled to a surge of study, in the last few decades of the twentieth century, of learners errors, called error analysis (Corder, 1971, 1973; Burt & Kiparsky, 1972). ), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning: Volume II (pp. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. A cautious approach to inferring someones competence will allow you to draw some conclusions about overall ability while still leaving the door open for the relevance of many linguistic tidbits that might otherwise be discarded. Please understand me: Character and temperament types. With data banks boasting hundreds of millions of words (Conrad, 2005, p. 394), our capacity to analyze language as it is actually used, and not as it may occur (e.g., in language textbooks that are sometimes guilty of manufacturing linguistic examples to illustrate a form), is greatly enhanced. (2) In the case of English, the penetration of English language media (especially Internet-based communication, television, and movies) provides further ready access to English even in somewhat isolated settings. . Han and Selinker (2005) admitted that fossilization research is still characterized by a plurality of unresolved issues, despite the popularity of the term (pp.
), Dialogue with Bakhtin on second and foreign language learning (pp. (2001a). TEACHING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Issues of culture, social identity, and concomitant ideological ramifications, as ingrained sets of behaviors and modes of perception, become highly important in the learning of an L2. It appears that our language learning IQs involve more than simply academic smarts. Howard Gardner (1983, 1999, 2006, 2011) was the first psychologist to help us to see why IQ is too simplistic a concept to account for a whole host of skills and abilities. How can a teacher limit the number of examples within a certain type or function? There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or lateralized, to the left hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. The advantage of exploiting contrastive analysis in teaching and learning a foreign language. As you learned a second language, did you feel any of the learning was due to a knack (talent, ability) you had for it? In countries with which they are familiar, discuss the extent to which government dictates language policies either in education in particular or in the country in general.
In one study of adult learners of ESL, Reid (1987) found some significant cross-cultural differences in visual and auditory styles among Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic speakers. SLA research in the classroom/SLA research for the classroom. Patsy Lightbown (1985, pp. Learning to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other. In M. Hines & W. Rutherford (Eds. ), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 6. Two factors accounted for the decline. Language as cultural practice: Mexicanos en el norte. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Adult L2 instructioneven in communicative approachestypically includes an emphasis on the structure of the language, and also vocabulary. Examples: business transactions, doctor-patient conversations, teacher-student conferences. Only once did he try to make conversation, but this caused people to laugh at him, so he became too embarrassed to continue. (2002). New York: Routledge. Gardner, H. (1983). An updated synopsis of research and practice in CLT around the world, with references and commentary on various manifestations of CLT. Inside language. Written style is therefore usually more deliberative with the exception of friendly letters, notes, e-mails, or literature intended to capture a more personal style. Ritchie, W., & Bhatia, T. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5, 3968. If so, describe an activity that you think was, to some extent anyway, task based. It is no wonder, then, that the acquisition of a new language ego is an enormous undertaking not only for young adolescents but also for an adult CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition 65 who has grown comfortable and secure in his or her own identity and who possesses inhibitions that serve as a wall of defensive protection around the ego. CHAPTER 2 First Language Acquisition 27 This line of research expanded the LAD notion by positing a system of universal linguistic rules that went well beyond what was originally proposed for the LAD. In E. Hinkel (Ed. We can conclude, cautiously, that paper-and-pencil self-ratings may be valid if (1) the tests have been widely validated previously and (2) we do not rely on only one instrument or method to identify a level of affectivity. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. But the innateness hypothesis presented a conundrum. Granted, postcritical-period SLA is indeed marked by various forms of nonnativelike accents, but in the globalization of languages, especially major languages like English, Chinese, Spanish, and French, accents are so widely varied and indigenized (Kachru, 2011), that their significance is somewhat minor. Peters, A. Foreign Language Annals, 37, 8595. (A) Ask students on their own to take the Styles Awareness Checklist on page 134 (Figure 5.1). Taleghani-Nikazm, C. (2002). One who doesnt suffer as much embarrassment as an adult over making a faux pas in the second language? Raising teachers awareness of corpora. CLL was a valiant attempt to put Carl Rogerss philosophy into action and to overcome some of the threatening affective factors in second language learning. The applications to teaching are equally numerous, apparent in a perusal of publications that have appeared in the last decade or so.
How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Linguistic and communicative competence. Does age matter for the ultimate attainment of second language acquisition (SLA)? (D) Explain Scovels claim that the acquisition of a native accent around the age of puberty is an evolutionary leftover of sociobiological critical periods evident in many species of animals and birds. See also Culture attitudes and, 191 extroversion and, 155 ideology, policy and politics of language and, 191196 in language classroom, 200201 relationship between language and thought and, 180184 second culture acquisition and, 186190 social distance and, 188190 stereotypes and, 178179 teaching intercultural competence and, 196199 Whorfian Hypothesis and, 183 Sociocultural identity, 206 Sociocultural-interactive (S-I) strategies, 126127, 127n Sociocultural viewpoints, 295296 Sociodynamic approach, 165 Sociolinguistic competence, 208, 209 Sociolinguistic context, 261 Sociolinguistics, 287n Sociopragmatics, 226227 Space distance, 177 Specific self-esteem, 144 Speech acts, 211212, 216 Stabilization, 246, 264, 266 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 101 State anxiety, 150, 151 Stereotypes elements of, 178179 formation of, 179 Stimulus, 80 Stimulus-response learning, 93 Stimulus-response (S-R) theory, limitations of, 26 Strategic competence, 208209, 210 Strategic self-regulation (S2R), 124 Strategies, 110111, 287n. What are the negative and positive effects of that new language ego? Its simply a matter of understanding exactly what it is that they are imitating.
While the teacher, mindful of Navajo culture, respected the mans behavior, the child, who was familiar by now with standard schoolroom discourse, was able to bridge the gap with a parting bye-bye. All three, in their respective ways, displayed interactional competence. Mondada, L., & Doehler, S. (2004). AFFECTIVE CONSIDERATIONS We turn now to what may be the most complex, yet the most illuminating, perspective on age and acquisition. Bidirectional transfer.
Consider the directness of discourse of some cultures: in the United States, for example, casual conversation is said to be less frank and more concerned about face-saving than conversation in Greece (Kakava, 1995), and therefore a Greek conversation may appear more confrontational than its counterpart in the United States. Mistakes must be carefully distinguished from errors of a second language learner, idiosyncrasies in the language of the learner that are direct manifestations of a system within which a learner is operating at the time.
Nevertheless, the elusive nature of affective concepts need not deter us from seeking answers to questions. Register: Accounting for the context of the interaction in terms of style factors, including intimate, casual, deliberative, etc. From telegraphese at eighteen months to the complex, cognitively precise, socioculturally appropriate sentences just a few short years later? Written Discourse: Intercultural Rhetoric Discourse is, of course, not by any means limited to oral-aural interchange. Language Learning, 26, 377390. Swain, M. (2005). Larsen-Freeman, D. (2012a). Communicative competence In a related principle, L2 learners are invariably called upon to internalize structural, discoursal, pragmatic, stylistic, and nonverbal properties of communication in order to effectively comprehend and produce the L2 in varying contexts. Weiner, B. Kachru, B. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10, 281302. . These assumptions are challenged by sociocognitive approaches that view human behavior as embodied, adaptive intelligence that enables us to survive in our socially constructed worlds. A plausible interpretation of the four processes, with some overlap among them, would place most classroom learners roughly on a line of progression from #1 (controlled/focal) to #4 (automatic/peripheral). 3. The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. In L2 teaching, Wong (1986) capitalized on just such a concept in a discussion of teaching communicative oral production. More complex syntax was incorporated into the imperative: Draw a rectangle on the chalkboard. Walk quickly to the door and hit it. Humor was easy to introduce: Walk slowly to the window and jump. Put your toothbrush in your book (Asher, 1977, p. 55). Rosansky, E. (1975). Politeness conventions are a complex set of pragmalinguistic factors that are difficult to learn, especially considering the possible range of politeness from extremely so, in formal situations (I humbly beg you to consider. Such an assumption must be viewed in the light of what it means to be successful in learning a second language, and particularly the role of accent as a component of success. 14). Atkinson, D. (1999). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Prator, C. (1967). And my heart was yeasted with dream. LEARNING AND TEACHING We can also ask questions about constructs like learning and teaching. Teachers are therefore called upon to embrace their learners, to organize a curriculum well, to create exciting classroom experiences, and above all to respect their students (Gorham & Christophel, 1992). . Weasel words tend to glorify very ordinary products into those that are unsurpassed, ultimate, and the right choice. Food that has been sapped of most of its nutrients by the manufacturing process are now enriched and fortified. And isnt it odd that in a grocery store there are no small or even medium eggs, only large (which now seem sort of average), extra large, and maybe jumbo? At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. Reflectivity-impulsivity and their influence on reading for inference for adult students of ESL.
CHAPTER 5 Individual Differences 119 Reflectivity and Impulsivity Have you ever been tempted to make an impulsive decision to buy a pair of shoes simply because you like them, without carefully calculating their affordability in your budget? Comprehensive Psychiatry, 13, 421428. (A) Divide the class into six small groups, each representing one of the six perspectives on SLA, or slice of the color wheel pie.
Towards a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. New York: Prentice Hall. In businesses, workers are expected to perform their jobs competently, that is, to exhibit skills that match their expected competence. Robinson, P. Table 5.5 Sociocultural-interactive strategies and tactics S-I Strategy Examples of Tactics Interacting to learn Cooperating with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool information, or model a language activity Overcoming knowledge gaps Asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples, questioning for clarification, using memorized chunks of language to initiate or maintain communication Guessing intelligently Using linguistic clues in lexicon, grammar, or phonology to predict, using discourse markers to comprehend Generating conversation Initiating conversation with known discourse gambits, maintaining conversation with affirmations, verbal and nonverbal attention signals, asking questions Activating sociocultural schemata Asking questions about culture, customs, etc., reading about culture (customs, history, music, art) 128 CHAPTER 5 Individual Differences C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS The three lists above enumerate quite a number of tactics that learners have used to successfully learn foreign languages. Andersen, P. (2007). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. On the surface, its entirely reasonable to make the analogy.
(Eds.). 30 CHAPTER 2 First Language Acquisition Finally, in recent years a further development of connectionist models of language acquisition is seen in a position that hearkens back to the spirit of behavioral approaches. LEARNER LANGUAGE Until the 1960s, L2 learners had been viewed for perhaps centuries as incomplete users of their foreign languagelearners who were at best in the process of slowly and imperfectly approximating (Nemser, 1971) nativelike proficiency. . 3. SLA in children (of varying ages) and adults 2. Cultural awareness and the negotiation of meaning in intercultural communication. Pica, T. (2005). In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds. Hladik, E., & Edwards, H. (1984). C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS What are some examples of operant conditioning techniques that you have experienced in learning or teaching an L2? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 13, 321332. The most important of these is group-specific, the attitude learners have toward the members of the cultural group whose language they are learning. What are the key features children attend to? The germination (pun intended) of my picture was the metaphor once used by Derek Bickerton in a lecture at the University of Hawaii about his contention that human beings are bio-programmed for language (Bickerton, 1981) perhaps not unlike the bio-program of a flower seed, whose genetic makeup predisposes it to deliver, in successive stages, roots, stem, branches, leaves, and flowers. 2. How are we to explain this difference, this apparent lag between comprehension and production? Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Among this surge of interest in psychological well-being was the widely popularized Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1962), commonly referred to as the Myers-Briggs test. Blackledge, A., & Creese, A. Identity in second language teaching and learning. Perhaps like the murmuration of flocks of thousands of starlings performing their amazing shadowlike dances in the sky, each element of ones L2 journey relates to other elements and causes change. What kinds of tips might the teacher offer? Or, in the words of Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow (2000), we would do well to refrain from too much of a misemphasis on poor adult learners and an under-emphasis on adults who master L2s to nativelike levels (p. 9). Oxford, R. (2011a). (1999). Stevick (1982) concluded that LB dominant second language learners are better at producing separate words, gathering the specifics of language, carrying out sequences of operations, and dealing with classification, labeling, and reorganization. Language Learning, 48 (Suppl. ), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. Ehrman, M. (1989). (2003). In Myers-Briggs spinoff tests, for example, we must decide if we tend to stay late, with increasing energy at parties or leave early, with decreased energy, an item designed to measure extroversion vs. introversion. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS What are some examples of overt (sentence level) errors and covert errors in your own production of an L2? One of the goals of your teacher is to help you and your classmates to positively transfer various strategies, mindsets, linguistic tricks, and cross-cultural knowledge to this newest language. The most obvious difference, in the case of adult SLA, is the tremendous cognitive and affective contrast between adults and children. How might you help students to become aware of this style continuum and to put their awareness into action? These and other questions about the acquisition of discourse ability are slowly being answered in the research (Holmes, 1995; Tannen, 1996; Clark, 2009). (2009). This list of factors begins to give you an idea of the many different domains of inquiry that were considered important, in 1976, to constructing a theory of SLA. We also perform acts of listening and reading just as surely as we perform acts of speaking and writing. Share with the rest of the class, and try to come to a consensus.
Donahue and Parsons (1982) examined the use of role-play in ESL classrooms as a means of helping students to overcome cultural fatigue while engaging in oral communication. . 317). (1976). New York: Routledge. For Piaget, learning is a developmental process that involves change, self-generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experiences (Kaufman, 2004, p. 304). (1987). White, L. (1987). Language Teaching Research, 4, 95121. Zimmerman, B. (1975). Vygotsky and cognitive science: Language and the unification of social and computational mind. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (1990). . Communicating across cultures. 1. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop. Language Learning, 45, 283331. What can we conclude about language acquisition theory based on a competenceperformance model? Complexity The learners task is enormous because language is enormously complex. Investigating tasks in formal language learning. Cathcart, R., & Olsen, J. (Ed.). The score for the symphony may have, lets say, twelve separate parts that are performed simultaneously. That input may be represented as i 1 1, that is, neither too far beyond ones reach nor so close that it poses no challenge (i 1 0). Error Analysis The fact that learners make errorsand that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learnerled to a surge of study, in the last few decades of the twentieth century, of learners errors, called error analysis (Corder, 1971, 1973; Burt & Kiparsky, 1972). ), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning: Volume II (pp. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. A cautious approach to inferring someones competence will allow you to draw some conclusions about overall ability while still leaving the door open for the relevance of many linguistic tidbits that might otherwise be discarded. Please understand me: Character and temperament types. With data banks boasting hundreds of millions of words (Conrad, 2005, p. 394), our capacity to analyze language as it is actually used, and not as it may occur (e.g., in language textbooks that are sometimes guilty of manufacturing linguistic examples to illustrate a form), is greatly enhanced. (2) In the case of English, the penetration of English language media (especially Internet-based communication, television, and movies) provides further ready access to English even in somewhat isolated settings. . Han and Selinker (2005) admitted that fossilization research is still characterized by a plurality of unresolved issues, despite the popularity of the term (pp.
), Dialogue with Bakhtin on second and foreign language learning (pp. (2001a). TEACHING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE Issues of culture, social identity, and concomitant ideological ramifications, as ingrained sets of behaviors and modes of perception, become highly important in the learning of an L2. It appears that our language learning IQs involve more than simply academic smarts. Howard Gardner (1983, 1999, 2006, 2011) was the first psychologist to help us to see why IQ is too simplistic a concept to account for a whole host of skills and abilities. How can a teacher limit the number of examples within a certain type or function? There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or lateralized, to the left hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. The advantage of exploiting contrastive analysis in teaching and learning a foreign language. As you learned a second language, did you feel any of the learning was due to a knack (talent, ability) you had for it? In countries with which they are familiar, discuss the extent to which government dictates language policies either in education in particular or in the country in general.
In one study of adult learners of ESL, Reid (1987) found some significant cross-cultural differences in visual and auditory styles among Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic speakers. SLA research in the classroom/SLA research for the classroom. Patsy Lightbown (1985, pp. Learning to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other. In M. Hines & W. Rutherford (Eds. ), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 6. Two factors accounted for the decline. Language as cultural practice: Mexicanos en el norte. C LASSROOM C ONNECTIONS Adult L2 instructioneven in communicative approachestypically includes an emphasis on the structure of the language, and also vocabulary. Examples: business transactions, doctor-patient conversations, teacher-student conferences. Only once did he try to make conversation, but this caused people to laugh at him, so he became too embarrassed to continue. (2002). New York: Routledge. Gardner, H. (1983). An updated synopsis of research and practice in CLT around the world, with references and commentary on various manifestations of CLT. Inside language. Written style is therefore usually more deliberative with the exception of friendly letters, notes, e-mails, or literature intended to capture a more personal style. Ritchie, W., & Bhatia, T. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5, 3968. If so, describe an activity that you think was, to some extent anyway, task based. It is no wonder, then, that the acquisition of a new language ego is an enormous undertaking not only for young adolescents but also for an adult CHAPTER 3 Age and Acquisition 65 who has grown comfortable and secure in his or her own identity and who possesses inhibitions that serve as a wall of defensive protection around the ego. CHAPTER 2 First Language Acquisition 27 This line of research expanded the LAD notion by positing a system of universal linguistic rules that went well beyond what was originally proposed for the LAD. In E. Hinkel (Ed. We can conclude, cautiously, that paper-and-pencil self-ratings may be valid if (1) the tests have been widely validated previously and (2) we do not rely on only one instrument or method to identify a level of affectivity. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. But the innateness hypothesis presented a conundrum. Granted, postcritical-period SLA is indeed marked by various forms of nonnativelike accents, but in the globalization of languages, especially major languages like English, Chinese, Spanish, and French, accents are so widely varied and indigenized (Kachru, 2011), that their significance is somewhat minor. Peters, A. Foreign Language Annals, 37, 8595. (A) Ask students on their own to take the Styles Awareness Checklist on page 134 (Figure 5.1). Taleghani-Nikazm, C. (2002). One who doesnt suffer as much embarrassment as an adult over making a faux pas in the second language? Raising teachers awareness of corpora. CLL was a valiant attempt to put Carl Rogerss philosophy into action and to overcome some of the threatening affective factors in second language learning. The applications to teaching are equally numerous, apparent in a perusal of publications that have appeared in the last decade or so.
How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Linguistic and communicative competence. Does age matter for the ultimate attainment of second language acquisition (SLA)? (D) Explain Scovels claim that the acquisition of a native accent around the age of puberty is an evolutionary leftover of sociobiological critical periods evident in many species of animals and birds. See also Culture attitudes and, 191 extroversion and, 155 ideology, policy and politics of language and, 191196 in language classroom, 200201 relationship between language and thought and, 180184 second culture acquisition and, 186190 social distance and, 188190 stereotypes and, 178179 teaching intercultural competence and, 196199 Whorfian Hypothesis and, 183 Sociocultural identity, 206 Sociocultural-interactive (S-I) strategies, 126127, 127n Sociocultural viewpoints, 295296 Sociodynamic approach, 165 Sociolinguistic competence, 208, 209 Sociolinguistic context, 261 Sociolinguistics, 287n Sociopragmatics, 226227 Space distance, 177 Specific self-esteem, 144 Speech acts, 211212, 216 Stabilization, 246, 264, 266 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 101 State anxiety, 150, 151 Stereotypes elements of, 178179 formation of, 179 Stimulus, 80 Stimulus-response learning, 93 Stimulus-response (S-R) theory, limitations of, 26 Strategic competence, 208209, 210 Strategic self-regulation (S2R), 124 Strategies, 110111, 287n. What are the negative and positive effects of that new language ego? Its simply a matter of understanding exactly what it is that they are imitating.
While the teacher, mindful of Navajo culture, respected the mans behavior, the child, who was familiar by now with standard schoolroom discourse, was able to bridge the gap with a parting bye-bye. All three, in their respective ways, displayed interactional competence. Mondada, L., & Doehler, S. (2004). AFFECTIVE CONSIDERATIONS We turn now to what may be the most complex, yet the most illuminating, perspective on age and acquisition. Bidirectional transfer.
Consider the directness of discourse of some cultures: in the United States, for example, casual conversation is said to be less frank and more concerned about face-saving than conversation in Greece (Kakava, 1995), and therefore a Greek conversation may appear more confrontational than its counterpart in the United States. Mistakes must be carefully distinguished from errors of a second language learner, idiosyncrasies in the language of the learner that are direct manifestations of a system within which a learner is operating at the time.
Nevertheless, the elusive nature of affective concepts need not deter us from seeking answers to questions. Register: Accounting for the context of the interaction in terms of style factors, including intimate, casual, deliberative, etc. From telegraphese at eighteen months to the complex, cognitively precise, socioculturally appropriate sentences just a few short years later? Written Discourse: Intercultural Rhetoric Discourse is, of course, not by any means limited to oral-aural interchange. Language Learning, 26, 377390. Swain, M. (2005). Larsen-Freeman, D. (2012a). Communicative competence In a related principle, L2 learners are invariably called upon to internalize structural, discoursal, pragmatic, stylistic, and nonverbal properties of communication in order to effectively comprehend and produce the L2 in varying contexts. Weiner, B. Kachru, B. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10, 281302. . These assumptions are challenged by sociocognitive approaches that view human behavior as embodied, adaptive intelligence that enables us to survive in our socially constructed worlds. A plausible interpretation of the four processes, with some overlap among them, would place most classroom learners roughly on a line of progression from #1 (controlled/focal) to #4 (automatic/peripheral). 3. The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. In L2 teaching, Wong (1986) capitalized on just such a concept in a discussion of teaching communicative oral production. More complex syntax was incorporated into the imperative: Draw a rectangle on the chalkboard. Walk quickly to the door and hit it. Humor was easy to introduce: Walk slowly to the window and jump. Put your toothbrush in your book (Asher, 1977, p. 55). Rosansky, E. (1975). Politeness conventions are a complex set of pragmalinguistic factors that are difficult to learn, especially considering the possible range of politeness from extremely so, in formal situations (I humbly beg you to consider. Such an assumption must be viewed in the light of what it means to be successful in learning a second language, and particularly the role of accent as a component of success. 14). Atkinson, D. (1999). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Prator, C. (1967). And my heart was yeasted with dream. LEARNING AND TEACHING We can also ask questions about constructs like learning and teaching. Teachers are therefore called upon to embrace their learners, to organize a curriculum well, to create exciting classroom experiences, and above all to respect their students (Gorham & Christophel, 1992). . Weasel words tend to glorify very ordinary products into those that are unsurpassed, ultimate, and the right choice. Food that has been sapped of most of its nutrients by the manufacturing process are now enriched and fortified. And isnt it odd that in a grocery store there are no small or even medium eggs, only large (which now seem sort of average), extra large, and maybe jumbo? At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. Reflectivity-impulsivity and their influence on reading for inference for adult students of ESL.
CHAPTER 5 Individual Differences 119 Reflectivity and Impulsivity Have you ever been tempted to make an impulsive decision to buy a pair of shoes simply because you like them, without carefully calculating their affordability in your budget? Comprehensive Psychiatry, 13, 421428. (A) Divide the class into six small groups, each representing one of the six perspectives on SLA, or slice of the color wheel pie.